Education Assesment Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Education Assesment Plan - Essay Example Learners who are able to read letter A to Z, A to L and A to G without errors are assigned grade 3, 2 and 1respectivelty. Since the students involved are at lower level the issue of time needed to complete is task is a major constraint. Besides, the entry behavior of the students and question of whether to inform the students about the standard for awarding score provides a big challenge. However, the assessment plan adheres to various principles of evaluation and hence suitable for assessing performance level. A school as an agent of social change is accountable to the community. The society expects a school to provide quality education that meets both the individual and national demands. One instrument available for establishing whether a school responds to this goal is through assessment. An assessment refers to the process of gathering, scrutinizing, analyzing, giving meaning to both qualitative and quantitative data and presenting a report about a particular area of study. The r eport acts as basis for formulating policies at school and national level. Moreover, it gauges the level of achievement of learning objectives. A teacher may choose to assess student continuously in class (formative assessment) or administer a test at the end of the term (summative assessment). Although, one type of assessment may be preferred over the other, an assessment as whole is an integral part of learning process. Therefore, the process of evaluation must not fall below standard. The process can be improved by planning the entire assessment process. An assessment plan is scheme detailing objectives, context, content, task and time of assessment. For any assessment to achieve its intended goals, it must be valid. This means it must test whatever it meant to evaluate without ambiguity (Morrow et al, 2006). Consequently, the assessment should relate to the content or curriculum. The study of alphabets is key requirement in the learning of language. It is the foundation of word formation. The assessment correctly tests this area by letting the students recite the alphabet from A to Z and assign specific words to each letter. Therefore, the assessment is meaningful. The test captures all aspects of the content such as recitation, sequencing and word building. Moreover, the mental complexity of the student is tested by asking students to identify the missing letters in a sequence. A apart from validity, an assessment should also be reliable. A reliable assessment is one which is consistent and produces similar results if it was repeated. As a result, a student should get almost same score if the assessment was done again (Maureen, 2006). This assessment is done under same condition and instruction. Each student is expected to perform same task of reciting the alphabets. Therefore, no significant variation in the performance of student is expected if the test was repeated because the instructions are clear. Again, the students are given tasks with same level of difficulty irrespective of their cognitive abilities. A student who is able to recite all alphabets is expected to fill the missing alphabets in a sequence. This demonstrates high level of internal consistency. The students are given time to perform the tasks and demonstrate their skills and abilities. In addition, they have been given an opportunity to grade themselves. The students should be made aware of the assessment criteria before commencing a test

Niger Delta Conflict On The Nigerian Economy Politics Essay

Niger Delta Conflict On The Nigerian Economy Politics Essay The objective of this Chapter is to provide a background to the study. This includes the implication of the Niger-Delta (ND) conflict on the Nigerian economy, the genesis of amnesty policy, the objective of the study, research questions, methodology as well as scope and limitations to the study. Background to the Study The centrality of the Niger-Delta Region to Nigerias economy is indisputable. This is because it produces the oil that presently sustained the economy. Unfortunately, however, over the last decades, it has become a centre for violent protests with destructive consequences on the Nigerian economy and socio-political stability as well as the rippled effect across the international. For instance, government statistics have shown that in 2005, Crude oil production has fell from 2.7million barrels per day (mbpd) to 2.4mbpd thereby showing a shortfall of 0.3mbpd in crude oil production. On the revenue side, in the same year, the projected revenue of N1.63trillion was revised downward to N1.4trillion due to shortfall in crude oil production (2006 FGN Budget Speech). Similarly, in 2006 expected revenue into the Federation Account fell by N570 billion due to loss of 600,000bpd (2007 FGN Budget Speech). In 2007, the projected revenue was short to the tune of N796billion due to disruption of cr ude oil production in the Niger-Delta region (2008 FGN Budget Speech). In 2008, crude oil production was projected at around 2.45mbpd but only 2.00mbpd was achieved also due to disruption of production (2009 FGN Budget Speech). In 2009, crude oil revenue projection fell by 17% due to disruption in production as well as fall in crude oil price at the international market (2010 FGN Budget Speech). Another pointer to the gloomy nature of the Nigerian economy was the use of the Excess Revenue Account (ERA) from year 2006 every month, except in some very few cases, to augment the monthly disbursement of revenue from the Federation Account. For instance, over N733.81bn and N795.41bn were withdrawn from the ERA to augment budget expenditure for the three tiers of government in 2007 and 2008 respectively (CBN, Annual Report, 2008). The conflict has been blamed on the nations imbalance political structure; long years of environmental pollution due to oil exploration and extraction activities; infrastructural neglect and demand for larger share of revenue from crude oil sales (Omeje, 2006). But, recognizably, over the decades, government have used carrots and sticks approaches both to coerce and appease the people of the Niger-Delta Region. While the past measures have made some significant impacts in some respects, there are recurring echoes of consternation from the region. Among the past efforts were the creation of the Niger-Delta Development Board (NDDB), Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission (OMPADEC), Niger-Delta Development Commission (NDDC), Derivation Principle (from 1% to 13%) and the establishment of Niger-Delta Ministry in 2008. Fisher-Thompson (2010) writing for the Bureau of International Information Programs, U.S. Department of State observed that the key to Nigerias economic progress is stability in the Niger River Delta, where the bulk of the countrys oil and natural gas is produced and where a smouldering militancy and sabotage of production facilities threaten progress for the regions 30million residents. Thus recognising the enormous potentials of Niger-Delta for the nation at large, the late President YarAdua, for example, said it would be delusional to think that electricity could be generated and transmitted on a sustainable basis in Nigeria if resolution of the Niger-Delta question remains literally or figuratively in the pipelines (Adeniyi, 2010), Similarly, the Technical Committee on the Niger-Delta (TCND, 2008), noted that President YarAdua recognised the strategic importance of the Region as the main source of Nigerias foreign revenue by making the Niger-Delta problem one of the 7-Point prog ramme of the administration. Thus, amnesty was granted to the militants in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria in June 2009, by late President YarAdua to assuage the nagging militancy in the region. There is, however, hardly any study at the moment that have made any constructive attempt to analyse the impact of the amnesty programme on the nations crude oil production as well as revenue flow into the Federation Account except for the dotted newspapers clips and other scattered official documents. Also, as it is with most novel approaches, the amnesty programme has been greeted with lots of scepticism as its likely impact of restoring peace and improved crude oil production and flow of revenue into the Federation Account might not be achieved. Accordingly, as a topical issue in Nigeria, which viability is questioned, it provides the motivation and interest to peruse government documents in order to give a better picture of the situation. Moreso, as a staff of Revenue Mobilisation Allocation and Fiscal Commission (RMAFC), an agency of government that is constitutionally charged with the function of monitoring revenue accruals into and disbursement from the Federation Account, added more impetus to the subject of the research. Hence, this research is an attempt to put together official records as well as other sources in order to give a preliminary impact of the amnesty programme on crude oil production and revenue into Federation Account. OBJECTIVES In this research, the quest is not to discuss the amnesty programme or to dwell on the oil debacle in Nigeria, but to relate the amnesty programme to some of the expected benefits, which are specifically interconnected with improved crude oil production and flow of oil revenue into the Federation Account. In other words, the primary aim of this research is to find out whether the acceptance of amnesty by the militants in the Niger-Delta has any significant impact on crude oil production output and flow of oil revenue into the Federation Account. RESEARCH QUESTIONS This research would particularly attempt to answer the following research questions: To what extent has the granting of amnesty as a mechanism to manage resource conflict in the Niger-Delta region contributes to improved crude oil production? What is the effect of the amnesty on the flow of revenue into the Federation Account (Common Pool) from the oil sector? How does the amnesty programme impact on the Nigerias fiscal federalism? METHODOLOGY Jankowicz, (1995) has defined methodology as a systematic and orderly approach taken towards the collection of data so that information can be obtained from those data. This research adopts a qualitative approach, which has been described as a subjective account that one generates by getting inside situations and involving oneself in the everyday flow of life (Gill and Johnson, 2005:89). In Strauss and Corbin (1990:17) Qualitative Research is any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification. The objective of using this approach is to be able to draw conclusion from the research question as to whether there was an increase in crude oil production as well as revenue flow into Federation Account as a result of the amnesty granted to the militants. This research uses secondary data collection approach. The data of crude oil production statistics and revenue inflow were sourced from Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), Revenue Mobilisation Allocation and Fiscal Commission, Federation Account Allocation Committee Files (FAAC) and National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). Despite, their shortcomings, the credibility of data from these institutions is not in doubt because no any other agency can provide such data within and outside Nigeria without referring to them as source. The data collected were evaluated using a simple data inspection technique which is a comparison between actual experience and counterfactual scenarios. This type of technique is comprised of three methods namely; with versus without, before versus after and target versus actual. This method is basically used to analyse the effects of programmes and performance (Douangboupha, 2004). This research adopted the before and after technique because it provide the basis in which comparison is done between crude oil production and revenue flow into Federation Account before and after the amnesty has been granted. The before versus after method is used to compare performance of a new policy with what was before the reform. This approach usually shows what happened and not why it happened. However, this approached is criticised on the fact that it ignores other external factors that can influence it outcome (Douangboupha, 2004). SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH The scope of this research is to examine crude oil and revenue data from January 2009 May 2010. Similarly, the research would not be interested in looking at the amnesty programme in general. Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction The main objective of this Chapter is to critically review literature from variety of perspectives on the causation and management of conflict with links to natural resources induced conflicts. Review of Literature Conflict is a tragedy and impediment to development (Collier and Hoeffler, 2000). Conflict is an interruption of development as no development project will ever take place in a state of conflict. Of course, this has been acknowledged by late President YarAdua that conflict is threatening peace, security, order and good governance and jeopardising the economy of the nation (YarAdua, 2009). Conflict has been defined by Burton (1990) as those behaviours of individuals or groups that go beyond disagreement that cause serious injury to physical, security and future development of individuals, groups and nations. As in Omeje (2006:17), Fisher (2000) defines conflict as uneasy relationship between two or more parties who have, or think they have incompatible goals. These incompatible goals are largely associated with deep-human needs characterised by interest, desires and aspirations. Without doubt, conflicts do not just happened as there are always such factors that lead to conflicts. The causation of conflicts have been theorised in various ways such as in biological disposition, psychology, religion, identity, ethnicity, nationalism, ideology, history and ancients hatred, bad neighbours, manipulative leaders, security dilemma, cultural dysfunction, nature of the State and incompatible world views (Mac Ginty, 2009). Despite these incisive but opposing perspectives, the rentier state theory and resource curse thesis were, indeed, two central frameworks that have provided in-depth analysis on the impact of natural resources to the political, economic and social settings of resource blessed nations. In the rentier theory, it is argued that it is any state reliant not on the surplus production of the domestic population or economy but on externally generated revenues or rents usually derived from the extractive industries such as oil (Omeje, 2006). The rentier theory believed that reliance on economic rents promotes inefficiency and impede socioeconomic development (Mahler, 2010). Proponents of this theory argued that, on the political strand, rents promote authoritarian rule because it encourages network of patronage, pervasive clientelism and selfish policies of distribution. The net effects of these are lack of democratisation and gross societal depoliticisation. Another contention is that the presence of cornucopia of revenues, particularly, coming from oil sector discourages taxation thereby making the political class less accountable to the people and less interested in the promotion of citizen participation in governance. Though rentier theory focus more on the stability of authoritarian rule, rather than violence, there are evidence that rents are used to finance security apparatus by the political class to repress opposition, which in essence amount to violence (Mahler, 2010). As an example, the Nigerian political history has been dominated by both military and political elites that have less sympathy for the promotion of democracy. The evidences of coup and counter-coups that shaped the nations political past are obvious while election rigging and disenfranchisement have so far characterises the democratic dispensation. On the whole, there are submissions that the bulk of the youths in the Niger-Delta were armed by politicians. Okolo (2009) aptly states that the politicians in their unbridled lust for power, arm these youths as private armies against their real and perceived enemies making all sorts of promises to secure their loyalty but immediately their aim is achieved they abandon them forgetti ng that they still hold the arms. The youths unemployed and angry must a matter of necessity employ the guns to some use? The world is today not faced by the Thomas Malthus (1798) assertion that scarcity leads to conflict but by the argument that resource abundance has a link to conflict. The Malthusian argument is based on the idea that natural resources are in fixed supply and as demand of the resources increased, the price also increases, while the resources depleted thus leading to conflict (Mahler, 2010). On the contrary, staple theorist argued that resource abundance leads to the improvement of peoples well-being because natural resources provide the much needed revenues for the provision of goods and services. Unfortunately, resource abundance is now seen as a curse that is associated with all sorts of problems ranging from slow economic growth, corruption and conflicts (Oyefusi, 2007). Economic theorists have contended that over-reliance on single source of revenue makes a nation vulnerable and prone to conflict (Herbst, 2001) because of large rents and exposure to variety of shocks (booms and bursts). For instance, Nigeria has faced several crude oil related shocks and conflicts from 1966 to date often resulting in loss of lives and dislocation of the nations economy. More compounding to Nigeria is that the oil resource is largely located in one geographical region. And, as aptly observed by Ndikumana and Emizet (2005), dependence alone does not motivate conflict but the concentration of the natural resources in one geographical region and their unequal distribution significantly contribute to conflict. Moreso, the topography of the Niger-Delta area seems conducive for militancy activiti es. Olowu (2009) described the Niger-Delta as an intricate network of lagoons, creeks, estuaries, and mangroves swamps, stretching across 1 million square meters. Howsoever, sound is the above proposition; a many countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Norway and host of others were able to demystify the resource-dependency theory by making considerable progress in transforming their respective nations. So, for Collier (2004) the solution is to diversify the sources, which reduces the risk of conflict. Also, the resource-dependency theory has been criticised on the fact that dependency alone on a single natural resource does not lead to armed conflict. As Mac Ginty, (2005:67) argued scarcity and violence are a product of social relations rather than inherent in the relative abundance of a particular good, object or resources. It is further argued that conflict arises from a complex mix of events in the presence of resources the mode of resource exploitation, perception on benefits and identity affiliations. As it has been observed if the stake are high, identity affiliations can mutate, with groups and individuals attaching increasing weight to the purity of their ethnic group and rediscovering (or inventing) their unique history (Mac Ginty, 2005). Added to this, Ross (2003:19) pointed out that any given conflict is brought about by a complex set of events; often poverty, ethnic or religious grievances, and unstable governments The fundamental problem noted in this context is that of the management of the resources. It has been pointed out that it is the nature of the extraction coerce or voluntary, licences distribution patronage or open competition, profit destination public or private pockets that significantly explained whether there is resource curse or not (Mac Ginty, 2005). Similarly, poor management of resources create situations where individuals or group that harbour some grievances will use that as opportunity to argue against plundering of the resources located in their backyard without benefits. This is, somehow, the case in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria where there is demand for fair share of revenue from the resources extracted from the area. The Resource curse thesis presumed misery in the midst of plenty. It is argued that abundance rather than serve as a means for development leads to struggle for the control of the natural resource which often result in armed conflict (Obi, 2008). Indeed, the armed conflict in the Niger-Delta is over the control of crude oil between the State and the local communities caused by poverty and low human development index (Omeje, 2006). On another hand, studies by Sachs and Warner (1997:3) demonstrated that resource-poor economies often vastly outperform resource-rich economies. The point is that nations with abundant natural resources tend to grow slower than economies with fewer resources. In support of the above, Ross (2003) reported that the GDP per capita of countries which mining export was between 6% to 15%, fell by an average rate of 0.7% while those with mining export of about 15% 50%, their GDP per capita fell to 1.1% a year. Similarly, it showed that the GDP per capita of count ries with over 50% of mining exports, dropped by 2.3% per year. Furthermore, Sachs and Warner, (1997) cited historical instances to buttressed this point that in the 17th century despite the overflow of gold and silver from the colonies of Spain, the Netherlands surpassed Spain. This is similar with Japan and Switzerland that cast shadow over resource abundant Russia in the 19th Century while Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong became the star performers of the 20th century despite having fewer resources. Sachs and Warner (1997:4) conceptually situate this economic puzzle within the context of easy riches leads to sloth and the Dutch disease proposition. The Dutch Disease thesis argued that the availability of large rents from a single natural resources often result in the neglect of other productive sectors of the economy (Ross, 1999). In other words, the Dutch disease demonstrates that booms in natural resource sectors usually affect the distribution of employment throughout the economy, as wealth effects pull resources in and out of non-traded sector s (Sachs and Warner, 1997:5). And this is evident in Nigeria where oil revenue continue to grow from 3% in the 1960s to now over 80% of federally collectable revenue while total agricultural export dropped from 60% in the1960s to less than 8% by 2005 (Omeje, 2006). However, contrary to the persuasive argument put forward by Sachs and Warner, (1997), that one surprising features of modern economic growth is that economies abundant in natural resources have tended to grow slower than economies without substantial natural resources, Stijns, (2000:3) argued that it was a misleading result which was short of recommending that developing countries should leave their natural resources undiscovered and/or unexploited. Stijns (2000:4) further contended that natural resources are not significant determinants of economic growth because of the coexistence of positive and negative channels of effect from natural resources to other economic factors. It has been variously argued that natural resources have the potentials of promoting violent conflict through grievance and greed. The grievance theory sees conflict emerging from the long concern over deprivation and injustice (Collier, 2004 and Collier and Sambanis, 2007). Therefore, Communities whose land is being exploited sees themselves as collateral damage and where benefits is not forthcoming, they resort to protest and violence that leads to economic sabotage such as disruptions of production. For instance, the Niger-Delta region has been famous for economic sabotage as a way of protest against environmental degradation and neglect (Omeje, 2006). However, economists like Collier and Hoeffler have argued that greed is more inherent in motivating conflict than grievance or conflicts are far more likely to be caused by economic opportunities than by grievance (Mac Ginty, 2005:79, Tar, 2008). This is because the abundance of natural resource often serves as an incentive in which elites and warlords loot. The greed theory also presupposes that natural resources provide attraction to covetous individuals or groups to rebel in order to take control over revenues from the natural resources. However, critics argued that the expression made economists on the causation of conflict is economic rationalism taken to extreme (Mac Ginty, 2005:71) and pointed out that conflicts cannot be measured only by econometric methodologies or mistook correlation for causation while also subjecting the causes of conflicts only within the national environment without placing external factors such as trade, religion, regional dynamics in arms flow, etc. G enerally, it is argued that the real agents of conflicts are politics and identity while economic factors only appear to change the nature and aim of the conflict at some stage (Mac Ginty, 2005). As further contended, economic factors can enable conflict, but it cannot combust or sparks the conflict without other factors. Closely related to the greed thesis is the frustration and aggression theory, which deals with relative deprivation as a perceived disparity between value expectation and value capabilities (Afinotan and Ojakorotu, 2009). The theory argues that if there is a gap between expectation and attainment caused by lack of capability, tension crept in as a result of unfulfilled aspiration, which leads to frustration that eventually produces violent aggression. It was noted by Afinotan and Ojakorotu, (2009) that men are most inclined to aggression when subjected to unjustified frustration. Indeed, the potentials of violence are define by the gravity of deprivation. As Afinotan and Ojakorotu, (2009) pointed out men who are frustrated have an innate disposition to do violence to its source in proportion to the intensity of their frustration. The Niger-Delta conflict is a perfect demonstration of this theory because people are frustrated by lack of development, etc. However, this theory has been criticised on the ground that aggressive response to frustration may be dependent upon the individuals level of tolerance Afinotan and Ojakorotu, (2009). The separatist theory suggests that natural resources portend the risk of a secessionist conflict because it gives those in the region where the resources is located the incentive to demand for separate State (0yefusi, 2007). Indeed, it is more obvious from the emerging picture and dynamics of the conflict in the Niger-Delta region that the element of greed rather than grievance is more pronounced as various groups and factions emerged making conflicting demands and more often violently clash with each other over the control of areas where pipelines installation passes through (Omeje, 2006, 2008). In another perspective, Bannon and Collier (2003:2) contended that conflict is more likely to occur in a state of low per capita income, low economic growth rate and the structure of the economy. For instance, since the 1970s oil exports generated huge revenues in Nigeria, and yet, per capita income has remain very low in 1975 the per capita from oil was $127 which raised to $351 in 1980 and plummeted to $81 in 1989 but gradually grew to $337 in 2007 and to $391 in 2007 (CBN, Annual Statistical Bulletin, 2008). Though growing population in Nigeria has played a pivotal role in this low per capita, it is hard to conclude that low per capita from oil revenue is not one of the factors that leads to conflict in Nigeria (Mahler, 2010). But Mahler (2010:15) persuasively argued that even though falling oil revenues in the 1980s and the 1990s have contributed to low per capita, it was not only the shrinking abundance of oil but also its interplay with weak resource management performance in the country that caused further socioeconomic problems. These are issues associated with managing environmental problems and resource allocation principles. Therefore, as a solution, Collier (2004:7) suggested that doubling the level of income halve the risk of conflict. A percentage point on growth rate reduces the risk by around a percentage point. Despite the preponderance of econometric and case study analyses, there are still profound opposition that resources alone cannot be the direct link to conflict. This is because other extraneous factors and historical assumptions which are necessary for creating a link between resources and violent conflicts have not been properly contextualized through in-depth empirical studies to create linkages between resources and conflicts (Mahler, 2010). To this end, Mahler, (2010) has provided in a tabular form a matrix of resource and non-resource contextual conditions that will guide debate on the link between conflict and resources: Using the matrix in Table IV, and as has been postulated, the conflict in the Niger-Delta is premise on four contextual factors with oil serving as the main attraction (Omeje, 2006) as well as other external factors. Some commentators have situated the conflict in the Niger-Delta within the hypothesis of historical context arguing that the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 was unconscious of the heterogeneous nature of the nation as it failed to address the concern of the minority groups. Thus, the dominance of majority groups over the minority groups whose environment eventually produces the nations revenue, give rise to agitation for the restructuring of Nigeria (Omeje, 2006). The second ground situates the conflict in the Niger-Delta on the legal framework relating to landownership and extraction policies. Proponents of this thesis argued that the existing legal framework has given more control to the Multinational Oil Companies operating in the country thereby making them less lia ble to the environmental problems associated with exploration and extraction. In other words, the current legal mechanism within Nigeria lacks the impetus of enforcement. In the case of landownership, it is argued that the Land Use Act of 1978, for instance, has given State Government the ownership of land thus depriving individuals and groups from the right to demand for appropriate compensation, a situation which late President YarAdua attempted to reverse (Adeniyi, 2010). The third view positioned the Niger-Delta conflict on the pedestal of dependency in which the incorporation of Nigeria into global economic and political scene that is yet to be understood has disadvantaged Nigeria thereby leading to conflict. The fourth school of thought with Marxist approach sees the conflict in the Niger-Delta as the contradictions of class or groups interest intrinsic to the political economy of Nigeria as well as the character of the state (Omeje, 2006). Indisputably, the above issues are cause largely by institutional arrangement. As noted by Bardhan (2005) institutions either economic or political constitute or form the nucleus in which equitable distribution of resources or powers among divergent groups are made. And where the institution is inefficient, it becomes less credible thus attracting disquiet among the people. Bardhan (2005:27) put it that the history of underdevelopment is littered with cases of formidable institutional impediments. The failure of the institutions gives birth to collective action problem such as dispute over the sharing of the cost of bringing change known as free-rider problem and disputes over the sharing of benefits. All these problems, often, lead to breakdown of coordination among divergent and competing groups. Douglass North in Acemoglu and Robinson (2008:2) define institution as the rules of the game in a society or, more formally, are the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction. Both economic and political institutions are influence by collective choices. The political institution, for instance, allocates de jure and de facto powers even though the latter sometime uses the instrument of force to meet it objectives. Acemoglu and Robinson (2008:6-7) noted that de facto political power originates from both the ability of the group in question to solve its collective action problem and from the economic resources available to the group which determines their capacity to use force against other groups. They further noted that when a particular group is rich relative to others, this will increase it de facto political power and enable it to push for economic and political institutions favourable to its interests, reproducing the initial disparity. Certainly, the Niger-Delta co nflict is a prime example of this assertion because the militants were capitalising on the location of the crude oil in their geography as a weapon to move for drastic change in the way political power and resource distribution are made. The history of Nigeria has depicted vivid evidences of political and economic asymmetry, which means unequal power and resource distribution and relation between communities within the States and between the State and the Federal Government. It is palpable that despite the creation of more States in the last decades, the cries of marginalisation still pervade the nations political terrain. For instance, State and Federal relationship has been situated on the north/south divide created by the amalgamation of 1914 which created a presume fear that the north with numerical population would continue to dominate the south. Oputa (2000:113), for example, observed that political asymmetry in this case persists because of the fear of domination by the north in the context of party electoral competition for control of political power and, therefore, of the enormous fiscal resources and patronage deriving from it at the federal level. Another issue political asymmetry lies in the balance of po wer where the States have remained dependent on the Federal Government. But it should be noted that Nigerias federalism was unique because the centre created the units unlike in other federations where the units create the centre. Contributing to the conflict debates, the neo-liberalists through the conception that free-market made free men believe that individual freedoms, open markets and rational choice guides human beings away from encouraging conflicts but instead sees development as a ladder out of conflict. This argument was re-enforced by the submission that free trade prevents conflicts and was demonstrated by the post-colonial studies of Krause and Suzuki, which concluded that the probability of conflict under open trade is insignificant (Mac Ginty, 2009). However, this postulation was criticised on the ground that free trade encourages market-induced inequality thereby creating enmity and tension among individuals and communities. Indeed, the Niger-Delta region is the symbol of Nigerias international trade where Multi-national Companies (MNCs) engage in Oil and Gas business, surprisingly, it is the same region that has been inundated by violence. Often, there were clear evidences to suggest the invo lvement of the MNCs in the brewing of the conflicts (Omeje, 2006, 2008). Development is another issue that is said to be behind conflict. This is so because the process of development sometime provide s

Eriksons Stage of Development Essay -- Application Development Stages

Erikson's Stage of Development †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage 1: My mother fed me consistently throughout the day. I was fed at the same times daily. I learned how to blindly trust my mother for providing milk. I learned how to trust my environment in general and developed a secure attachment toward my parents. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage 2: While I was learning how to walk, my parents left me alone to explore how to walk by myself. I would hold onto the edges of the walls to help support me up. My parents encouraged my use of initiative and reassured me when I fell down. I developed the confidence needed to cope with future situations that required choice, control, or independence. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage 3: I had an imaginary friend named Billy at this age. I never felt shame when using my imagination or talking to my imaginary friend. However, I learned that I should not always do what Billy did. For example, if Billy threw away a penny, I knew that I should not do the same. This taught me the ability to accept what was happening without guilt and that there are certain things that are wrong to do. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage 4: Through attending school, I learned the necessity to be productive and do my own work. I learned to make things, use tools, and acquire skills to be a worker and a potential provider. I participated in a wide variety of events throughout the day including academics, group activities and friends. Due to these activities I developed a sense of competence. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Stage 5: Currently, I decide wh...

Leadership, Power and Politics

Conflict,   Management and leadership Conflict is a natural outcome originating due to individual and group interaction. It is a ‘friction’ produced due to emotions and behaviors of people working closely rubbing against each other. When people from various backgrounds and beliefs work together, consciously or unconsciously they try to pass their own principles in work aspects creates conflict. However, conflict is not always destructive or regressive. When well managed and directed, it has great utility in substantially improving an organization’s functional and production aspects, along with helping individuals to evolve a joint   philosophy of work and cooperation. However, poorly managed conflict situation impairs the organizational outcome, creating stress, introducing   dissatisfaction and reducing efficiency. Characteristics of Conflict The round the clock work schedules, trans-national nature of jobs, and strain in today’s world have worked together to make conflict an unavoidable part in life of people. Work related stress, with pressures of deadline, critical levels of responsibility, problems of resource allocation and management, setting, defining and achieving challenging goals, and all the time trying to coordinate with different individuals give rise to perfect conditions for   conflict to emerge within organizations (Bergman and Volkema, 1989). But before any attempt to resolve conflict it is important to understand the characteristics of conflict that an organization generally faces. According to Baron (1990), a study of various organizational parameters indicated towards five characteristics of conflict . These are 1. Conflict due to contrasting or opposing field of interests between or among individuals or groups. 2. Recognition of these opposing interests by the interested parties 3. Conflict centers on a perception by each side that its opposing party would injure its interests 4. Conflict is not a stage, rather a process and it results from the way individual and groups define their relations through the past interaction 5. Actions and efforts by each party with the intention of negating other’s goals. Conflict management and leadership Leadership has a great role to play in conflict resolution. A leader with qualities with excellent communication, understanding and negotiation can be instrumental in bringing the positive outcome through the issues involved in the conflict. As the business and corporate management has realized, leadership greatly helps to alleviate conflict situation due to its inspirational value. Leadership essentially about encouraging   people to pool themselves together towards achieving common goals and objectives (Rosenbach and Taylor, 1998, 1. Leadership further empowers individuals, helps them to rise above their rank and position within the organization to associate themselves and their colleagues with specific works, duties and responsibilities and enables them to identify and set their own directions, work on commitment and take challenges.   (Day and Halpin, 2004, 3). Its not surprising then that companies are ready to invest hugely in leadership development program, as a guaranteed way to emerge ahead than their competitors. Within every social, institutional or organizational structure, a leader is always looked upon the person with abilities to broach reconciliation and resolution in situation of conflict. Leadership entails elements of power and authority that are critical to acquire influence. There are five power bases for a leader, as identified by French and Raven (1959). They are 1. Legitimate power: the power that comes by virtue of the position and command to control behavior. 2. Coercive power: It is the leader’s control over persuasion and ability to take symbolic punitive actions in case of dissent 3. Reward power: It is the leader’s control over granting rewards 4. Expert power: These are the specialties that a leader attains due to knowledge and experience and that he is expected to possess and use in conflict resolution 5. Referent power: This is the power over over subordinate or group members to identify the leader Leaders may opt for one, some or   a combination or all of these power bases to attain conflict management and resolution by influencing the psychological and social dimension of conflict, trust, and authority (Johnson and Short, 1994 :Leadership (Power and Politics) Leadership is not a characteristic that exists in isolation. As it is defined, leadership implies establishing coordination, orientation, cooperation, and collaboration among the followers to accomplish designated objectives and goals. It is   possible when leaders can inspire their followers with respect, admiration, discipline, confidence in the abilities of the leader while being helped to envision themselves as empowered individuals (Brown and Lord, 2004, 2). A good leader has the ability to take over even most complex, demanding and otherwise impossible condition by exhibiting personal integrity, ethical and moral traits and values that other can relate to and aspire to imbibe in their own conduct (Laurie, 2000, 53). Here it is important to distinguish personal charisma from leadership, as personal charisma, being an person specific phenomena, can awe people but hardly give them impetus to follow in the footsteps of the leader. Leadership is also means natural acquisition of power and potential to change its equation affect over the leaders and their followers. There inherent dangers associated with power, and for most of the people, the timeless adage-‘power corrupts’ suits justly. Power contains a temptation that is hard to resist and has potential to become the ultimate goal for a person rather the tool that was designated in helping to achieve the goals.   But a genuine leader understands this irony of power and therefore believes that power should be shared with others so that it can grow. The real power of leaders is their   ability to inspire others with a sense of power and confidence (Champy and Nohria, 1999, 165). According to Reigel’s (1979) theory of development, the relevant categories to leadership practices and conflict management are: 1. Optimism-faith in goodness of humanity. It works on the principle of faith in inherent goodness of humanity with a sense that goals and objective are achievable. 2. Interconnectedness-responsibility for the whole. The principle is extension of sense of responsibility to greater issues affecting the world that connects individual with the entire humanity. 3. The contradictory nature of things. It teaches about recognizing and respecting that contradiction occurs in people, their experience and circumstances. 4. Life is characterized by crises. Recognition that crises and conflicts are inbuilt of component of life and progress is achieved by incorporating them in the philosophy towards life. 5. Kinship with others. It stresses on building associations and help in realizing that every one is important and deserves equal respect from others. 6. The opposition. It teaches about taking opposition as contradiction, instead of viewing it in negative perspective. 7. Acknowledging other’s contribution. It stresses on frank and appreciative acknowledgment of success and achievements of others Reference Baron, R. A. (1990). Conflict in organizations. In K. R. Murphy & F. E. Saal (Eds.), Psychology in organizations: Integrating science and practice (pp. 197–216). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Bergmann T. J., and   Volkema R. J. ( 1989). â€Å"Understanding and managing interpersonal conflict at work: Its issues, interactive processes, and consequences†. In M. A. Rahim (Ed.), Managing Conflict : An inter-disciplinary approach (pp. 7-19). New York: Praeger Brown DJ and   Lord, RG,   2004, Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity,   Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ. Champy J, Nohria N, 1999, The Arc of Ambition: Defining the Leadership Journey, Perseus Books (Current Publisher: Perseus PublishingCambridge, MA. Day DV and Halpin SM, 2004, Leader Development for Transforming Organizations: Growing Leaders for Tomorrow,   (edit) David V. Day, Stanley M. Halpin, Stephen J. Zaccaro, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,   Mahwah, NJ. French, Jr., J.R.P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases social power. In Dorwin Cartwright (edit.), Studies in social power (pp. 150-157). Ann Arbor, MI: Researc Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan Johnson, P.E and Short, P.M (1994). Exploring the Links among Teacher Empowerment, Leader Power and Conflict. Education. Volume: 114. Issue: 4. Page Number: 581+. Laurie DL, 2000, The Real Work of Leaders: A Report from the Front Lines of Management, Perseus Books (Current Publisher: Perseus Publishing, Cambridge, MA Riegel KF. Foundations of Dialectical Psychology. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Rosenbach WE and Taylor RL, 1998, Contemporary Issues in Leadership, (edit) William E. Rosenbach, Robert L. Taylor, Westview Press,Boulder, CO.                   Leadership, Power and Politics Leadership is the process of influencing others to act to accomplish specific objectives. Leaders are the key movers of an organization and they are able to inspire and motivate their members to work towards the attainment of goals. In the past, leadership have been thought of as a quality that only the elite managers possess, however reality is, each one of us possess and may develop our leadership skills. Being a leader is not an easy job, it takes creativity, innovativeness, discipline, passion and an open mind. It is said that leaders emerge in times of change and turmoil; it is a fact that when the going gets tough, leaders are there to get things done. Opportunities for change however must be sought out and seized by the leader. It is a necessary element in the exercise of leadership, for leadership is at its best when there is an opportunity to grow, innovate and to improve. A leader can accomplish this by treating every job as an adventure, by deciding that each day is an opportunity to learn something new or to discover better ways of accomplishing things, the leader is more able to initiate changes that would be for the greater good of the group. When a leader seeks meaningful challenges, it allows the leader to work with passion and commitment that is personally gratifying and hence is able to effectively work for the group. With that, the leader also find and create meaningful challenges for others, when members feel that they are valued and trusted by their leaders to be able to accomplish realistic and challenging goals, they become more committed and become better workers. This means that the leader provides his/her members too become intrinsically motivated to rise to the challenge. As a leader, it is important that he/she make the workplace fun, happy people are more productive and they like going to work everyday because it is a happy place. as such, when an organization is so used to doing things in the same way, it leads to complacency and even deterioration, thus a leader must be able to question the status quo, this would mean that as a leader he/she must actively look for systems or programs that have outlived its usefulness and be creative enough to provide new ideas. Renewing teams in any organization is necessary in order to breathe new life to the team, a shuffling of departments or the movement of positions would reenergize the team and possibly generate new ideas and opportunities. Lastly, the leader should adopt an open approach to searching for opportunities. It is an acceptance of the leader that he/she does not have the monopoly of ideas and it is necessary to be aware of what is happening outside and inside the organization. Being an effective leader also takes the ability to experiment and takes risks and to learn from mistakes. Leaders if for some twist of fate have always been thought of as someone who can transform any organization form the brink of death to greater heights. But in reality, it is the scientific and objective leader who is able to appreciate the importance of carrying out mini experiments of new processes that would in the end be more cost-effective than to rush and implement a program or process that have not been tested. Experiments are for introducing new products while creating or developing models in specific departments of new processes will give the leader an objective assessment of the possibility of success or failure of the new process. The leader is not the sole experimenter, he/she must encourage other to experiment also, but at times it is faced with fear and apprehension, thus the leader should assure the members that it is safe to experiment. When a person is so set in his/her ways then it is difficult to initiate change, the leader therefore must be able to break the mind set of its people, to become more open to new ideas and change. An enormous change may be anxiety provoking for members, the leader thus should break up the changes into small challenges that members can accomplish one at a time. People work better if they know that their ideas and feelings are respected and that if what they are doing is of their own choice, a leader should give each person the opportunity to make their own choices. A leader must learn how to say yes to the ideas and opinions of its members, by saying yes more frequently than but or no, it would be easier for the leader to also solicit the cooperation of its people. A leader is not a Greek hero who has supernatural powers, he/she can make mistakes and a true leader has the grace and humility to accept his/her mistakes and to learn from it. Lastly, a leader should also be able to evaluate the effectiveness of the new programs or changes that he/she has carried out in the company and this exercise should be a collaborative effort with input from the different members of the organization. Knowing what may cause the failure of an innovation would go a long way in improving that product or process. It is true that leaders emerge out of the difficulties or major changes in an organization, and being a leader is no easy job, and one can always make use of information that would help enhance or develop our leadership skills. I found this as the advantage of the concepts, it provides true-to-life examples of how a leader is able to seize opportunities for change and why it is important to experiment and learn from mistakes. The disadvantages of the concepts however is that it is too abstract and sometimes it is difficult to relate to a job as mundane as selling cigarettes and that most of the examples involve large organizations wherein leaders are often the head of the department or the organization. Although the chapters do provide pointers on what an ordinary person could do to become a leader and it is a practical guide. The chapters present the concept as a series of things to do or things to learn, and not all could be applied at the same time to a single organization. In my experience as a cigarette store owner, I am limited by the products that sell the most; I may provide my customers with new brands or novel cigarettes but since smokers tend to stick to one brand. I may be able to innovate probably in giving freebies to loyal customers or be creative by using bonus coupons that they could exchange for premium brands. Moreover, I do not have a staff and hence my leadership skills are not harnessed. On the other hand I work part time in a gasoline station and work with other people but again a gasoline station is one of the most normal and stable organization there is. Thus, unless if the gasoline station gets sold or merged with another store, then maybe it would be time for me to rise to that challenge. On the other hand, learning about leadership has been exciting and very challenging, it tells me that I can be a leader someday; it also made me become aware of some of my personal characteristics that is akin to leaders. I would like to share to others what I have learned about leadership, sometimes we do not know that we possess the ability to be leaders if other people don’t acknowledge it, I would also tell them of the things that a good leader should be able to accomplish. That said, there are different leadership styles which a person may favor and use in different situations. Leadership styles include autocratic leadership, bureaucratic leadership charismatic leadership, participative leadership, Laissez-faire leadership, relations-oriented leadership, servant leadership, task-oriented leadership, transactional leadership and transformational leadership. Personally, I think that participative leadership is the best among the styles because although the leader has the final say in the decisions concerning issues on organizational change; it allows the members of the organization to contribute their ideas and thoughts. This communicate that the leader value and respects its members and thus increase job satisfaction of members and cultivates a culture of collaboration and cooperation that every organization needs to get things done. Reference Kouzes, J. & Posner, B. (2002). The Leadership Challenge.   California: Jossey-Bass      

Animal Farm, Theme, Tone, Imagery Essay

The theme of â€Å"Animal Farm† by George Orwell is there are dangers of a naive working class if the abuse of language as instrumental to the abuse of power is applied. For example, on page 31 â€Å"Comrades! You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs are doing this in selfishness and privilege? Milk and apples contain substances absolutely necessary to the well-being of a pig. We pigs are brain workers; the organization of the farm totally depends on us† Squealer cried. This is manipulation of language to make the Animals believe that the pigs should be given the best of the food production. According to Squealer mental work is more exhausting than physical work. This shows manipulation, because Orwell refers back to the Russian Revolution of 1917 when Stalin took over Russia and he didn’t follow Marx’s ideas, as Napoleon didn’t follow the idea of Animalism. Joseph Stalin killed anything in his path and modified the laws to his benefit, as Napoleon did throughout the book. Also, on page 100 the hens are requested to give six hundred eggs a week, and the other animals wore asked to build a windmill and a schoolroom while their food rations are being reduced. Everything in total is mostly for the pigs benefit, as in the schoolroom for the teachings of the young pigs, and the money for the sale of the eggs is making. There are dangers of having a naive working class because, people can be manipulated by the abuse of propaganda. Tone Orwell creates an indignant tone throughout the classic Animal Farm. The indignant tone is shown through out the book, because Orwell feels anger about how unfair the Russian Revolution was and, how naive society can be when people don’t work for rights. In Chapter V, â€Å"At this there was a terrible baying sound outside, and nine enormous dogs wearing brass-studded collars came bounding into the barn. They dashed straight for Snowball, who only sprang from his place just in time to escape their snapping jaws. † According to SparkNotes, Editors, â€Å"These words from Chapter V describe Napoleon’s violent expulsion of Snowball from Animal Farm, which parallels the falling-out between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. As Stalin did, Napoleon prefers to work behind the scenes to build his power by secrecy and deception, while Snowball, as Trotsky did, devote himself to winning popular support through his ideas and his eloquence. † The tone Orwell creates all refers back to the Russian Revolution, Napoleon decided to create his own power ignoring what the real idea of Animalism that Old Major created. Napoleon ignores Animalism, because creates a more of a totalitarian government. He makes himself President when in reality he is a dictator. Orwell shows that he is indignant about Joseph Stalin and how he used to kill people who got in a way of his power, as Napoleon who is really ambitious and kills opponents to his ideas. Imagery Through out the book Animal Farm, George Orwell uses examples of imagery to make a better vivid image to show the readers how unfair the Russian Revolution was. Old Major’s dream is an example of imagery. Old Major’s dream is about equality. Old Major tells the other animals that â€Å"Man is the only creature that consumes without producing,† and he encourages them to â€Å"work night and day, body and soul, for the over-throw of the human race. † In short, he explains that men have been taking advantage of them for years, and that it’s time for the tyranny of man to end but, what he is really talking about is rebellion. Major’s dream is a simplest version of Communist Manifesto; the basic idea of the Manifesto was capitalism was seriously unfair. The workers never saw the products of their labor because the capitalists, the people who owned the means of production claimed the profit for themselves. As in the book, Mr. Jones never showed the animals any affection or appreciation thus the animals for their work. The author used imagery in this occasion because he wanted to portray a negative view of how he attended his farm, and to give him an instant poor reputation because of his usage of alcoholism. Equally imagery was utilized by Orwell in pages 107-108 when a main working class character, Boxer, was being taken away by the Horse Slaughterer. Evidently, the usage of imagery helped to see how the animals responded towards the last seeing of one of their own, and how violent Boxer responded. In brief, all the vivid images Orwell cause was for the caused of the comprehension of how the ones being use by the ones with power are being affected. Imagery in Animal Farm helps the reader have a better idea and comprehension of what allegorically message Orwell is trying to transmit through the animals. Literary Devices Dramatic Irony is used throughout the book, dramatic irony was shown when Squealer and Napoleon persuasive the animals that Boxer died in peace. The death of Boxer shows Dramatic Irony because the reader knows that Boxer didn’t actually die in peace he actually was sent to a Slaughter house to get killed. Squealer tells the animals that the van that came to pick up Boxer was from hasn’t been repainted since the past owners. This is dramatic irony because the van clearly says, â€Å"‘Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler, Willingdon. Dealer in Hides and Bone-Meal. Kennels Supplied. In page 13 and 30 there was a bucket of milk left for the animals to use it in their mash, but once they left one animal stayed behind for some minutes, Napoleon, after the animals came back the milk had disappeared. Dramatic irony was seen and use here because the reader would comprehend how Napoleon actually took the milk for his food and some other pigs too, but wasn’t planning to share it with the rest of the animals in the farm, as it has been proven in page 30 when the animals found out that he actually took the milk. In a brief, page 13 the reader was actually the only one able to understand that Napoleon took the milk while the rest of the animals didn’t have a clue until page 30. Orwell wants the audience to know how the animals are been fooled and brain washed by Sealer and Napoleon and the animals are too naive to understand and see what really is happening. Genre Analysis Animal Far m is an example of an allegory classic; this novel teaches the reader how unfair was the Russian Revolution and what a big impact it had in the 1917-1921. Napoleon’s Initiative represents Stalin’s five year plans, In Animal Farm, Napoleon has the animals working harder than ever. Even the neighboring humans â€Å"had developed a certain respect for the efficiency with which the animals were managing their own affairs† But the animals are still starving. And just like Stalin, Napoleon uses tricks to â€Å"conceal this fact from the outside world† Napoleon sends the sheep out to talk about increased rations and has empty food bins filled with sand, lots of fiber, but unfortunately not too filling. Orwell is trying to teach the reader that society can be really dumb and easy to be manipulated, and people obey those who say they have power because society is too naive to take initiative of their own. The Hen’s rebellion represents Stalin’s Great Purge, The hens refuse to give up their eggs; Napoleon starves them; several of the hens die; the rest simply give up. Then, the pigs confess that they were working with Snowball and Mr. Frederick, and a moment later the dogs â€Å"tore their throats out† And then it happens again, with hens from the rebellion, a goose, and several sheep. Napoleon contradicts himself based on the first seven commandments, â€Å"No animal shall kill another animal†. Napoleon changes this commandment to â€Å"No animal shall be killed without cause. † Orwell wants the reader to understand that sometimes leaders change laws to their benefit and citizens don’t claim anything against them, because they are too scare to speak u. Animal Farm is a great allegoric novel because it teaches the reader how cruel the world can be when there is not actual equality and society gets intimated by people with power.